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CLASS VII SCIENCE SA I -Nutrition in animals BY RABI SIR

CLASS VII SCIENCE SA I -Nutrition in animals  

Holozoic nutrition:
It is a method of nutrition that involves the ingestion of liquid or solid organic material.

It involves different steps namely, ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.

Human beings exhibit holozoic mode of nutrition involving five basic steps.
Digestion: 
Digestion is the process by which complex food is broken down into simple absorbable form. 

Digestion of food starts from mouth and ends in small intestine

Digestive system is made up of alimentary canal and associated glands. 

Digestive system in human beings: 
Digestive system in human beings is formed by alimentary canal and digestive glands. 

Parts of alimentary canal: 
It comprises different parts like mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. It starts with mouth and ends with anus. 

ingestion  
The process of taking in food through mouth is called as ingestion.

Mastication

Teeth help in the process of mastication. Mastication is the process of mixing chewed food with saliva.

Digestion of food starts in the mouth with the help of salivary amylase present in the saliva.

Salivary amylase is the enzyme which digests starch into glucose for absorption

Epiglottis

Pharynx is the common channel for food and air. When we swallow food, a flap-like valve called the epiglottis closes the windpipe. Epiglottis prevents the entry of food particles into respiratory tract.

Oesophagus
Oesophagus also called as food pipe helps in conveying the food from buccal cavity to stomach. The oesophagus is also known as the gullet. It is about 25 centimetres long.

Peristaltic movements
Peristaltic movements are the alternate contractions and relaxations of oesophageal wall which bring about movement of food from buccal cavity to the stomach.

Food conveyed to the stomach is called as bolus as it is round in shape.

Stomach
Stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It is a J-shaped muscular organ divided into three parts namely, cardia, fundus and pylorus regions.

Stomach as a whole can hold at about two litres of food.

Stomach secretes a fluid called as digestive juice called gastric juice .

Gastric juice

It is made up of hydrochloric acid, mucous and enzymes like pepsin and rennin. 

Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria present in the food and softens the molecules of food. 

Mucous

Mucous protects inner lining of the stomach from the action of hydrochloric acid. 

chyme

Digestive enzymes partially digest some nutrients like proteins and fats. Stomach churns the food into a milky paste. This partially digested food is called as chyme. 

Chyme is conveyed to small intestine for further digestion. Chyme is acidic in nature.

Small intestine
Small intestine is made up of three regions namely duodenum, jejunum and ileum. 

• Acidic chyme from the stomach is received by the duodenum for further digestion.

• Duodenum also receives bile form the liver. Bile reduces the acidity of chyme. 

• Bile also provides alkaline environment to activate some enzymes which bring about digestion of certain nutrients in the food. 

• Duodenum also receives pancreatic secretions which help in the digestion of food. 

• Duodenum also secretes some enzymes on its own. 

• All these substances bring about digestion of food in the intestine. 

• The inner walls of small intestine are thrown into many folds which have millions of small finger like projections called villi. 

Villi increase

• Villi increase the surface area for digestion as well as absorption of digested food by eight times. 

Small intestine also helps in the process of absorption and assimilation. 

Large intestine

• Undigested food is sent into large intestine.

Large intestine comprises of colon and rectum. Large intestine receives undigested food from small intestine.

Water from the food is reabsorbed to a great extent in the large intestine.

Semi-solid undigested waste is stored in the rectum for defecation.

Anus is the opening of the alimentary canal to the exterior. This helps in the elimination of faeces by the process of egestion.

Digestive glands: 

These glands are also called as associated glands. These are also considered to be exocrine glands which have ducts to drop their secretions into the target organ directly. The secretions of the digestive glands help in the process of digestion. These glands include salivary glands, gastric glands, intestinal glands, liver and pancreas.

Salivary glands are present inside the buccal cavity. They secrete saliva. Saliva helps in lubrication of food . This saliva plays an important role in breaking down complex components like starch into simple sugars. It brings about partial digestion of starch.

Gastric glands are microscopic glandular cells present in the inner lining of the stomach. Gastric glands secrete gastric juice comprising HCl, pepsin and prorennin. 

Gastric juice helps in the digestion of proteins. Gastric juice helps in emulsification of fats.

Intestinal glands are present in the inner lining of small intestine. These secrete various enzymes which aid in the process of digestion of all the components of food.

Liver is the largest gland in our body. The liver secretes a yellowish green watery fluid called bile. It is temporarily stored in a sac called the gall bladder. 

Bile provides an alkaline environment for many enzymes to get active. It also reduces the acidity of chyme. Bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats. 

Bile is sent into duodenum through a narrow tube-like structure called the bile duct. 

Bile breaks the larger fat molecules into tiny droplets, thereby increasing their surface area, which helps in the digestion of fats easily.

Pancreas is the mixed gland. It acts as both endocrine and exocrine gland. The pancreas secretes the pancreatic juice that helps to digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The pancreatic juice converts carbohydrates into simple sugars and glucose, proteins into amino acids, and the lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Absorption: The process of allowing simple absorbable nutrients into blood capillaries through surface of the villi is called as absorption. Inner wall of small intestine comprises many finger like projections called as villi. Villi increase the surface area for absorption of food.

Each villus is made up of central structure called as lacteal which mainly absorbs simple fats and transports them into lymphatic system. 

Lacteal is surrounded by a network of fine blood capillaries. Blood capillaries absorb glucose molecules and amino acids and transport them in the blood. Vitamins and minerals get readily absorbed into the blood.

Assimilation: 

The process of utilisation of absorbed food, such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol is called as assimilation. Energy needed for various activities is obtained from glucose. 

Glucose is broken in the cells in the presence of oxygen to syntheise energy in the form of ATP. 

Amino acids are used for building and repairing body parts. Fatty acids and glycerol are stored in the adipose tissue and under the skin for future use.

Egestion: 

It is the process by which undigested food is passed to exterior through an opening called as anus. Rectum stores undigested waste in the form of faeces. Faeces are sent out through anus.

Class VIII SCIENCE SA I -CHAPTER -4 MATERIALS : METALS AND NON METALS

Class viii  CHAPTER -4    MATERIALS : METALS AND NON METALS

1) Occurrence of metals and non metals :-

•Out of the 92 naturally occuringelements 70 are metals and about 22 are nonmetals. Some elements show properties of both metals and non metals. They are called metalloids.

•Only some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are found in the free state. Most metals are found in the combined states as oxides, sulphides, carbonates, silicates etc.

•Some non metals are found in the free state like helium, neon, argon etc. and some are found in free and combined states like sulphur, phosphorus etc.

2) Metallurgy :-

•Metallurgy:-is science of extraction of metals from their ores and their purification.

•Minerals:-are naturally occuringsubstances containing one or more elements or their compounds.

•Ore:-is a mineral from which one or more metals can be extracted profitably.

•Metallurgical processes:-consists of three main steps. They are :-i) Concentration of the ore ii) Reduction iii) Refining

•Concentration of the ore:-is the removal of impurities from the ore.

•Reduction:-the process of obtaining the metal from its compound.

•Refining:-is the process of purification of the impure metals to obtain the pure metal.

3) Physical properties of metals and non metals:-

•Metals

•Metals are solids (except mercury).

•Metals are hard (except sodium, potassium etc.

•Metals have metallic lustre.

•Metals have high melting points and bolilingpoints.

•Metals are malleable ( can be made into thin sheets).

•Metals are ductile (can be made into thin wires).

•Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.

•Metals are sonorus(produces sound).

•Non metals

•Non metals may be solids, liquids or gases.

•Non metals which are solids are brittle (diamond is the hardest).

•Non metals do not have lustresome have a dull luster.

•Non metals have low melting points.

•Non metals are not malleable.

•Non metals are not ductile.

•Non metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite).

•Non metals are not sonorous

4) Chemical properties of metals and non metals:-

a) Reaction with oxygen:-

Metals react with oxygen to form metallic oxides. These oxides are  basic oxides because they react with water to form bases. Eg. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide. Magnesium  reacts with water to form magnesium hydroxide.

2 Mg + O2--à2 MgO

MgO+ H2O-à  Mg(OH)2

Non metals react with oxygen to form non metallic oxides. These  oxides are acidic oxides because they react with water to form  acids.

Eg. Sulphurburns in air to form sulphurdioxide. Sulphurdioxide  reacts with water to form  sulphurousacid.

S + O2-àSO2

SO2+ H2O---à H2SO3

b) Reaction with water:-

Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen.

Eg. Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and  hydrogen.

2 Na + 2 H2O 2 Na OH + H2

Magnesium reacts with water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen.

Mg + H2O Mg(OH)2+ H2

Non metals do not react with water.

c) REACTION WITH ACIDS:-

Metals react with acids to form metallic salts and hydrogen.

 Eg. Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride  and hydrogen.

Zn + 2 HCl ---------------àZnCl2+ H2

Most non metals do not react with acids.

Some non metals like sulphur reacts with concentrated nitric acid to forn sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and water.

S + 4 HNO3       -----------à SO2+ 4 NO2+2 H2O

d) Metals replace metals:-

A more reactive metal replaces a less reactive metal from its salt  solution.

Eg. Magnesium replaces copper from copper sulphate solution to form magnesium sulphate and copper.

Mg + CuSO4----------------à MgSO4+ Cu

Zinc replaces copper from copper sulphate solution to for zinc sulphate and copper.

Zn + CuSO4------------------à ZnSO4 + Cu

Iron replaces copper from copper sulphate solution to form iron sulphate and copper

Fe + CuSO4----------à FeSO4+ Cu

Based on the reactivity of metals, they can be arranged in the decreasing order of their activity.

5) Activity series of metals :-

The arranging of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called activity series of metals.

In decreasindg order

Potassium

Sodium

Magnesium

Aluminium Decreasing

Zinc order of

Iron reactivity

Lead

Copper

Silver

Gold

6) Noble metals :-

Metals like gold, silver, platinum etc. retain their lustre because they do not react with air, water or acids. So they are called noble metals.

Gold dissolves in aqua regia. Aqua regia is a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated hydrochloric acid in the ratio 1:3.

Pure is 24 carat gold. It is very soft and cannot be used for making ornaments. So it is mixed with some silver or copper to make it hard.

7) Uses of metals :-

Iron :-is used for making pins, nails, nuts, bolts, tools,

machines, construction of buildings, bridges etc.

Aluminium :-is used for making utensils, wires, furniture,  parts of aircrafts, vehicles, machines, for packing food and medicines etc.

Copper :-is used for making wires, vessels, electric  gadgets etc.

Gold :-is used for making jewellery, coins medals etc

Silver :-is used for making jewellery. Coins, medals etc.

Platinum :-is used for making jewellery, electric gadgets, plugs in vehicles etc.

Sodium :-compounds are used as common salt,  chemicals etc.

Calcium :-compounds are used for making cement, glass etc.

8) Uses of non metals:-

Sulphur:-is used for making sulphuric acid, salts of  metals etc.

Oxygen:-is used for respiration by living things, burning  of fuels etc.

Nitrogen:-is used for making ammonia which is used for  making fertilizers.

Hydrogen:-is used for making ammonia which is used for making fertilizers, as fuel in rockets, for welding etc.

Chlorine:-is used to kill germs in water.

Iodine:-is used as tincture iodine which is an antiseptic

10) Corrosion:-

The surface of some metals gets corroded when exposed  to moist air for a long time. This is called corrosion.

Prevention of corrosion of metals:-

The corrosion of metals can be prevented by:-

i) Applying oil or grease.

ii) Applying paint

iii) Galvanisation ( coating of metals with non corrosive metals like zinc)

iv) Electroplating ( coating of metals with non corrosive metals like chromium tin by passing

electricity)

v) Alloying ( Eg. When iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel, it forms stainless steel which is resistant to corrosion)

Class-7th SCIENCE SA I Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Animal and Climate

Weather describes the condition of the atmosphere. It might be sunny, hot, windy or cloudy, raining or snowing.

The weather depends onthe temperature, precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure of the part of atmosphere (air) closest to the surface of the earth. The weather is constantly changing as temperature and humidity change in the atmosphere.
Climate is the average weather conditions - temperature, pressure, precipitation and humidity - expected for a certain place. Climate is based on the average weather experienced over 30 years or more.

Meteorology: The science of monitoring and studying the atmosphere and predicting its weather and climate is called meteorology.

Meteorologists: People who study the weather and climate are known as meteorologists.
There are basically 6 factors affecting India's climate.
1) LATITUDE - Due to the curvature of the Earth, the amount of solar energy received is different according to the latitudes.

2) ALTITUDE - As we go higher, temperature generally decreases (From equator to poles) as the atmosphere becomes less dense.

3) PRESSURE AND WIND SYSTEM - They depend on the latitude and altitude of a place, thus influencing the rainfall patterns.

4) DISTANCE FROM SEA - The sea has a moderating effect on the climate. As distance from sea increases, this effect decreases and places experience extreme weather conditions (continentality).

5) OCEAN CURRENTS - They affect the climate of the coastal areas with the onshore winds.

6) RELIEF - High mountains act as barriers for cold/hot winds, may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain bearing winds. The leeward side of the mountains remains dry.
(Q.) Is wind a factor affecting climate? 
Yes, because of its direction maybe it comes from America which is a cold place right NOW example going to Philippines which has a hot temperature therefore if the temperature of the wind is cold/hot coming from that particular place the place it should go to could have the opposite temperature of the place that the wind is coming from.

(Q.) How does an elephant living in tropical rain forest adapt itself? 

(Ans) It has adapted to the conditions of rainforests in many remarkable ways.


It uses its trunk as a nose because of which it has a strong sense of smell. The trunk is also used by it for picking up food.
Moreover, its tusks are modified teeth. These can tear the bark of trees that elephant loves to eat. So, the elephant is able to handle the competition for food rather well.

Large ears of the elephant help it to hear even very soft sounds. They also help the elephant to keep cool in the hot and humid climate of the rainforest.

(Q.) Write a short note on the characteristics of Beard ape? 

(Ans) The lion-tailed macaque (also called Beard ape) lives in the rainforests of Western Ghats. Its most outstanding feature is the silver-white mane, which surrounds the head from the cheeks down to its chin. It is a good climber and spends a major part of its life on the tree. It feeds mainly on fruits. It also eats seeds, young leaves, stems, flowers and buds. This beard ape also searches for insects under the bark of the trees. Since it is able to get sufficient food on the trees, it rarely comes down on the ground.

(Q.) (i) What is camouflage? 

(Ans) Camouflage is the built-in protection in the animals which increase their chances of survival by tricking predators.

(Q) Why is camouflage important for animals? 

(Ans) Many tropical animals have sensitive hearing, sharp eyesight, thick skin and a skin colour which helps them to camouflage by blending with the surroundings. This helps them to protect themselves from predators.Example, big cats likelions and tigers have thick skin and sensitive hearing.

(Q.) Describe the adaptations of the polar bear in the polar climatic condition.

(Ans) - Polar bears have white fur so that they are not easily visible in the snowy white background which help it toprotect them from their predators. It also helps them in catching their prey.

- They have two thick layers of fur to protect them from extreme cold.

- They also have layer of fat under their skin.

- The polar bear goes for swimming for physical activities on warm days necessary for cooling.

-Its paws are wide and large, which help it not only to swim well but also to walk with ease in the snow.

- Polar bears can remain under water for long durations.

- It has a strong sense of smell so that it can catch its prey for food.

(Q.)Write the important characteristics of tropical rain forest?

(Ans) Tropical rainforests lie between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, or 1,400 miles north and south of the Equator. This region receives rainfall distributed regularly throughout the year, about 6-33 feet a year. It remains frost free and warm all year long, with temperatures between 70° and 85°F with very little daily fluctuation. Tropical rainforests are found in Western Ghats and Assam in India, Southeast Asia, Central America and Central Africa. Because of continuous warmth and rain, this region supports wide variety of plants and animals.
(Q) Which type of animals are inhabitants of tropical rain forestarea?

(Ans) The major types of animals living in the rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas, lions, tigers, elephants, leopards, lizards, snakes, birds and insects. The climatic conditions in rainforests are highly suitable for supporting an enormous number and variety of animals. As there iscompetition for food, some animals are adapted to get food, which is not easily reachable.

(Q.) Rainforests offers hospitable climatic conditions to support huge population of animals. Explain how?

(Ans) (a) The climatic conditions in rainforests are highly suitable for supporting an enormous number and variety of animals. Tropical rainforests lie near to the Equator. This region receives rainfall distributed regularly throughout the year, about 6-33 feet a year. It remains frost free and warm all year long, with temperatures between 70° and 85°F with very little daily fluctuation. Because of continuous warmth and rain, this region supports wide variety of plants and animals. The major types of animals living in the rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas, lions, tigers, elephants, leopards, lizards, snakes, birds and insects. Tropical rainforests are found in Western Ghats and Assam in India, Southeast Asia, Central America and Central Africa.
(Q) Explain with examples how animals have adapted themselves to overcome the competition for food and shelter in the rainforests.

(Ans) To overcome the competition for food and shelter, some animals are adapted to get food which is not easily reachable. Example, red-eyed frog has developed sticky pads on its feet to help to climb tress on which it lives. Another example is of the Toucan bird, which possesses a long, large beak. This helps a toucan to reach the fruits on branches which are otherwise too weak to support its weight.

(Q.) What do you mean by the term ‘Migration’? Give an example of a living organism which show this phenomenon.

(Ans) The regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of animals and birds to escape the harsh and cold conditions of weather is known as migration. Many animals, birds and fishes migrate to warmer regions in winter and come back when winter is over. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality. For example, the Siberian crane that comes from Siberia migrates to India at places like Bharatpur in Rajasthan and Sultanpur in Haryana

(Q.) "All the changes in the weather are caused by sun." Do you agree with this statement? If yes, then explain.

(Ans) Yes, the sun is the primary source of energy that causes changes in the weather becausesun is a huge sphere of hot gases at a very high temperature. The distance of the sun from us is very large. Even then, the energy sent out by the sun is so huge that it is the source of all heat and light on the earth.Energy absorbed and reflected by the earth’s surface, oceans and the atmosphere play important roles in determining the weather at any place. Weather varies from place to place. It is different in a desert, near coastal areas or near a mountain.

(Q.) What are adaptations? Explain the types of adaptations.

(Ans) An adaptation is trait of an organism that has been favored by natural selection. 

Adaptations are of following types:- 
Structural adaptations are special body parts of an organism that help it to survive in its natural habitat (e.g., skin colour, shape, body covering).
Behavioral adaptations are special ways of a particular organism that behaves to survive in its natural habitat.
Physiological adaptations are systems present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical reactions (e.g., making venom, being able to keep a constant body temperature)

CLASS VIII VARIOUS LINKS FOR DOWNLOADING STUDY MATERIAL-EXTRA QUESTIONS

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CLASS VIII SCIENCE STUDY LINKS
1. Force ,  Frictions ad Pressure
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8th Chapter 11 Human eyes
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